Plants and fungi FAQs

Before undertaking work on your hedge, check that no birds are nesting as it is an offence under the Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981 to damage or destroy the nest of any wild bird while the nest is in use or being built. The bird breeding season is seen to be from 1 March to the 31 August inclusive. So, the best time to cut your hedge is after the end of August and before March. 

If your hedge comprises of plants with berries, it is better to leave it until late winter so that the birds and other wildlife will have an extra food source during the winter. 

Hedgerows are important habitats for wildlife, as well as a big part of the UK’s cultural and natural history. Under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, no one can remove a hedgerow at a time when any bird nesting is disturbed (1 March to 31 August). At all other times, a hedge between domestic properties or in a private garden is not protected by any law preventing its removal. However, the Hedgerows Regulations 1997 states that no countryside hedge can be removed without permission if it is more than 20 metres in length. Visit gov.uk for further information. 

A wildlife-friendly hedge needs to provide a combination of shelter from the elements and predators, a supply of food, and good breeding sites. A good hedge will be composed of a mixture of native species to encourage a variety of wildlife. Consider using 50% hawthorn with a selection of three or four other species to add diversity. Other good species to use are blackthorn, field maple, dog wood, common alder, hazel, crab apple, and holly. Once the hedge is established, you can introduce climbers such as dog rose, honeysuckle, and ivy – all of which will increase its value to wildlife. 

Plant your hedge by creating two staggered lines with plants spaced 30-45 centimetres (12-18 inches) apart, with the second row about 45 centimetres (18 inches) from the first. 

New hedges are best planted during autumn and winter (October to February). Avoid periods when the ground is frozen or water-logged. Dig one spade blade deep and remove any grass or weeds. Bare rooted trees and shrubs (also known as ‘whips’) will be cheaper than pot-grown and are better for establishing a hedge. Most hedgerow trees or shrubs do not require any compost unless your soil is sandy or heavy clay. 

You will need to weed around the base of your new plants for the first couple of years and water in dry periods during the growing season. The hedge can be lightly trimmed in the autumn every other year, but remember to leave some of the hedge uncut to provide plenty of berries for winter. Avoid cutting your hedge during the nesting season of birds (March to August).

To provide more homes for wildlife, leave the grass long leading up to the hedge and leave leaf piles and log piles at its base to provide a variety of habitats for invertebrates and small mammals. Flowers such as primroses, red campions, dog roses, forget-me-nots, honeysuckles, foxgloves, and violets can be planted at the base of your hedge – these will encourage insects to visit. Foxgloves are especially attractive to bees, and honeysuckle will attract moths at night. 

Mechanical flail mowers or rotary driven cutters are widely used by farmers and landowners, and most hedges will recover from this. When cut by this method, the hedge will look severely beaten for a few weeks. When the new shoots do grow back, they will form multiple shoots and then branch outwards rather than up. Landowners using a reciprocating bar cutter to cut the hedges will often leave a neater cut on the hedge, with less risk of infection to individual plants within the hedge.  

The cutting of standard trees within a hedgerow is up to the landowner. The health of the mature trees is put at risk of infection when cut by flail mowers, but most of them will survive. If they are in one of the agricultural schemes, such as the Entry Level Stewardship (ELS) or Higher Level Stewardship (HLS), then there are rules and guidelines on hedgerow management.  

Ideal hedgerow management is not always easy to achieve. The ‘textbook’ way to cut a hedge is in an ‘A’ shape with a wide bottom and flat top to give good ground cover for nesting birds. Ideally, hedgerow maintenance is done during the winter months to lessen disturbance to wildlife, but this is not always possible for landowners.  

Landowners are required by law to trim hedges back if they are alongside public highways, footpaths, or any public right of way if it is preventing ease of access or affecting safety of the highway user to drivers or pedestrians. The debris from cutting must also be cleared up afterwards. It is best practice that hedges are not cut between 1 March and 31 July to prevent nesting birds and other wildlife being disturbed. 

Flailing hedges at the same height every year can drastically reduce their quality and health. However, tractor-mounted cutters can be an incredibly useful tool in managing hedgerows if the cutting height is increased year on year, as this allows the hedgerow to live out its full lifecycle gradually. Reducing the frequency of cutting to a two- to three-year rotation (if they are not beside a public highway) and cutting hedgerows in sections also ensures some part of the hedgerow will always set fruit and provide valuable food and cover through winter for wildlife. 

Without some form of management, hedgerows will develop gaps at the base, making them less valuable for supporting wildlife. Without the flail cutter, many more hedgerows would have been lost in the UK, as landowners would have ‘grubbed out’ (removed) far more. Legislation now restricts the complete removal of hedgerows. 

For more information on hedgerow health and best practice on hedgerow management, please visit the Peoples’ Trust for Endangered Species website.

You don't need a huge garden to attract wildlife – any open area can be managed for the benefit of wildlife. If you have a patio area, why not plant some low growing plants in the cracks and gaps? Doing this will provide valuable habitat and food for a variety of small animals. Bellflower, cranesbill, herb Robert, purple saxifrage, mint, and red valerian are just a few plants that will happily grow in such an environment. You can also grow wildflowers in pots and planters on a patio, which will provide an excellent mini food source and refuge for wildlife. 

A garden can have a different dimension at night. Many plants flower exclusively at night, and many more wait until evening to release their wonderful scents. These can play an important role in the wildlife garden, attracting nocturnal pollinators that are attracted to the strong scents, such as moths. 

Some favourite garden plants with nighttime scents are: 

• Honeysuckle – Lonicera periclymenum 
• Jasmine – Jasminum officinale (not strictly night-scented, but the perfume can be strong on warm evenings) 
• Night-scented stock – Mattholia longipetala 
• Evening primrose – Oenothera biennis 
• Flowering tobacco – Nicotiana alata (many modern Nicotiana varieties are day-flowering and have lost their scent) 
• Buddleia – various varieties (all attract butterflies during the day but can also attract moths in the evening) 

There are many garden flowers which provide nectar attractive to both butterflies and bees. If you want to attract butterflies, try to ensure that you have some nectar producing plants in flower from late winter and early spring all the way through until late summer and autumn. There is a huge range of plants that butterflies will feed from but among the best are mint, catmint, marjoram, oregano, buddleia, iceplant, red valerian, honesty, teasels and other thistles, sweet rocket, lavender, wallflowers, and honeysuckle. 

The nectar from ivy flowers in autumn is very attractive to red admiral butterflies. Fallen fruit in autumn will be fed upon by red admirals, commas, and peacock butterflies. 

Wildlife gardens should also include the food plants for butterfly caterpillars. A small patch of nettles in a sunny location may attract red admirals, commas, peacocks, and small tortoiseshells to lay eggs. Holly blues lay their eggs on holly (first generation) and ivy (second generation), orange-tips on garlic mustard, and painted ladies on thistles. Try to ensure both nectar for the adult butterflies and food plants for their caterpillars are available.  

Bee orchids can be unpredictable and may disappear from an area where they have been flowering successfully. They are usually found where there is drained, base-rich soil in areas such as scrubland, coastal sand dunes, and meadows. But bee orchids require some level of disturbance in order to germinate, meaning they are often unexpectedly found by roadsides, embankments, and pesticide-free lawns! It is best to leave an area of bare ground for the seeds to settle on as this is a colonising plant. However, only those seeds which gain nutrients from fungal hyphae will begin to develop. Cutting during the main flowering period between March and August should be avoided. 

The main reason flowers such as these are now rare is that they are essentially flowers of cultivated or disturbed land. The drive for intensive agriculture, higher yields, and ever more efficient herbicides has virtually eliminated these flowers from the UK. In fact, the cornflower is now extinct in the wild in Norfolk. The seeds can be purchased from garden centres and wildflower seed stockists, and when sown in the garden provide a beautiful display which is highly beneficial to insects. 

Himalayan balsam is an invasive, non-native plant in the UK which was introduced from the western Himalayas in 1839 as a garden ornamental. It has since escaped and spread across the country. Himalayan balsam is an annual plant, growing from seed set the previous year. This seed germinates early in the spring and grows rapidly to form dense stands up to 3 metres in height, which shade out native vegetation. It is the tallest annual plant in Britain. It has hollow, jointed, pinkish-red stems which are sappy and brittle. The leaves are shiny, dark green and spear-shaped, with a dark red midrib and up to 150 millimetres long. The flowers appear between June and October – they are fragrant, purplish-pink, slipper-shaped, and held on long stalks. The numerous seeds are widely scattered by an explosive seed capsule and can travel along water ways into new areas. When the plant dies back in the autumn, it leaves bare patches of soil which cause particular problems along riverbanks, making them prone to erosion.

The plant is now quite widespread in central and eastern Norfolk and is still expanding its range. It can be seen along the banks of rivers, in wet woodland, and on waste ground. For further information, please visit the Norfolk Non-native Species Initiative website. 

Giant hogweed is an impressive plant and can reach heights of up to 5-6 metres. It is therefore much taller and has altogether larger dimensions than any related native plant. The plant is an invasive non-native to the UK, introduced from south-west Asia in 1893 as an ornamental plant. The hollow stems are green with reddish-purple blotches, and up to 100 millimetres across. The leaves are dark green and jagged, ending in a spike, and arranged in rosettes around the stem. The many small white flowers appear in June or July and form an umbrella-shaped head (known as ‘umbel’) up to 500 millimetres across. It can take up to four years for a Giant hogweed to flower, but each plant can produce 50–80,000 seeds. 

Giant hogweed grows well where the soil has been disturbed, such as wasteground, roadsides, and riverbanks. Here they will shade out native vegetation. The seeds are easily dispersed by water, so it is often seen spreading along watercourses. It is widespread in Norfolk with ‘hotspots’ to the south and east of Norwich. After flowering, the whole plant dies off. This can cause problems with soil erosion if large areas of riverbanks are left bare over the winter. 

Please note: giant hogweed is a toxic plant and a public health hazard. The stems, edges and undersides of the leaves have small hairs which contain poisonous sap. The slightest touch causes the skin to become photo-sensitive, so that exposure to sunlight causes severe burns and blistering. For this reason, protective clothing must be worn when dealing with this species. For further information, please visit the Norfolk Non-native Species Initiative website. 

Japanese knotweed is not native to the UK – it was introduced in around 1855 as a garden ornamental. It is an invasive and destructive herbaceous perennial, native to Japan and south-east Asia. Shoots emerge in spring and grow rapidly up to 3 metres tall, forming dense clumps that shade out native vegetation. It has fleshy green and red hollow stems with swollen red nodes, giving an appearance similar to bamboo. The leaves are green, triangular to heart-shaped, 70-150 millimetres long. Flowers appear from July to September and are creamy white, 3 millimetres wide, borne in dense clusters on the tips of stems. The underground ‘rhizomes’ (stems) can be up to 10 centimetres in diameter, spreading 7 metres from the parent plant, up to a depth of 2 metres or more underground. Only female plants are present in the UK and they rarely set seed, however Japanese knotweed can take root from fragments of stem and rhizomes. Any seeds produced are likely to be from a cross with the closely related giant knotweed. The stems die back in winter, taking several years to decompose fully. 

The plant favours areas such as roadsides, railway embankments, riverbanks, and wasteland, and can be transported unknowingly in topsoil and spoil (excavated construction material such as sand, clay, and rubble). It can be found throughout Norfolk. For further information, please visit the Norfolk Non-native Species Initiative website. 

To increase your chances of success, it is best to collect the mistletoe berries in February or early March, rather than Christmas! You may need to cover a few berries on an existing plant with a net or you run the risk that birds will have eaten them, leaving none for you to collect! The seeds will stick to the bark of the trees when the berry is smeared onto a branch. In the wild, this is done by mistle thrushes and other birds which are fond of eating the white mistletoe berries but discard the sticky seed by wiping their bills on a convenient branch, in turn spreading the mistletoe from tree to tree. Mistletoe will only grow on certain tree species and apple trees seem especially receptive. Hawthorn, lime, poplar, whitebeam, pear, field maple, and ash are also suitable trees to try. 

Choose a young branch with thin, smooth bark and wipe the seed in a shady position such as the north-facing side or underside of your chosen branch. There is no need to cut the bark with a knife. You will need patience. It can often take a couple of years before the first pair of mistletoe leaves appear. Prior to that, if you look carefully, you may spot the fragile green root which is the first sign that your berry has germinated successfully. Remember: while mistletoe does not kill trees, it is partially parasitic so you may not want to plant it on your best fruit tree! Once it's established, it is fine to harvest some each year, and both the mistletoe and the host tree should survive for decades.

If your plant is mature (more than five years old), then it is likely that it is a male plant. Mistletoe is ‘dioecious’ meaning it has separate male and female plants, with only the female plant bearing berries. If your plant is less than five years old, then it may just be that your plant is too immature to produce berries. It is then a case of being patient and hoping it turns out to be a female plant! 

Ivy is a native, evergreen climber with glossy leaves and clusters of bountiful berries, which has enormous benefits for wildlife throughout the year. Ivy provides a natural shelter for a wide array of mammals, birds, and invertebrates in winter, including bats, as well as nesting sites for birds in spring, like wrens. Their nectar-rich flowers are a lifeline for autumn-flying insects, such as red admiral butterflies, hoverflies, bees, and moths – and the benefits of ivy extend far beyond. The holly blue butterfly, which lays two clutches of eggs a year, will lay their summer clutch on the leaves of ivy, and once fueled up, many insects will find refuge in an ivy hedge or bush to hibernate in over the winter. Ivy berries provide a rich food source for birds at a time of year when other natural food supplies are often depleted, and thrushes, woodpigeons, blackbirds and blackcaps have all been seen enjoying ivy berries. Why not leave a patch of ivy in your garden and see what comes to visit? 

Ivy is not parasitic. It has its own root system, deriving its own nutrients directly from the soil. The tiny, root-like structures on its stems merely enable it to cling to the tree without damage to the bark. In rare instances, ivy may cause the toppling of a dead or rotten tree if an excessive weight of leaves and stems near the tree’s crown make it top-heavy and cause it to blow over in high winds. 

Ivy tends to grow well on trees that are already in decline. A tree in full vigorous growth will not usually allow sufficient light through the canopy for ivy to thrive. Oaks naturally shed branches and limbs as they age. This is an entirely natural process. The dead wood produced is in turn extremely valuable for wildlife – it becomes a food source for insects, which form a valuable food source for birds such as woodpeckers. Rot holes in dead wood are also used by a wide range of species as roosts and nest sites. 

Native trees are much better than non-native trees for attracting wildlife to your garden. This is because native trees house a wider variety of invertebrates, which in turn attract mammals and birds. Trees with lots of interesting features such as dead branches, splits, and hollows support the widest range of invertebrates, so try not to ‘tidy up’ trees unless they are unsafe. 

Different trees will attract different species. Acorns from oak trees will attract squirrels, jays, and woodpigeons. Cones from alder trees attract goldfinches. Dense trees such as yew and holly provide good habitat for greenfinches. Beech trees attract tits and chaffinches, but few insects. Berries from rowan and ash will attract many bird species. Willow trees host more than 90 species of moth caterpillar, which in turn will attract bats. Birch trees attract many species of birds, insects, and caterpillars. Treecreepers nest in large, mature trees with loose bark, while hollow branches provide perfect habitat for tawny owls. 

A Tree Preservation order (TPO) is an order made by a local planning authority (in Norfolk this is done by the District Councils) which makes it an offence to cut down, top, lop, uproot, wilfully damage, or wilfully destroy any tree protected without obtaining permission from the local authority. Its purpose is to protect trees which make a significant impact on their local surroundings. The order can cover anything from a single tree to woodlands, including hedgerow trees, but not hedges, bushes or shrubs. Further information is available on gov.uk. 

Veteran or ancient trees are classed as a tree that is of interest culturally, historically, or aesthetically because of its great age or size. Ancient trees are key features of our landscape and are very important sites for wildlife. 

Veteran trees are usually old enough to be hollow or have rotting heartwood, which provides ideal habitats for wildlife including, birds, bats, fungi, and beetles. 

An ancient tree is classed as being no less than 3.77 metres in girth at 1.3 metres above root level. The location of ancient trees can also be identified from old maps or written records. They are usually at least 100 years old. 

In Norfolk, you can visit NWT Thursford Wood to see ancient oaks, and NWT Hethel Old Thorn to see our 700-year-old hawthorn. You can also find ancient trees at NWT Ranworth Broad, Felbrigg Hall (National Trust), and Lynford Aboretum (Forestry Commission). 

Many horse chestnut trees in Norfolk are suffering from an infestation of horse chestnut leaf miner moth caterpillars, causing the leaves to turn brittle and brown, and eventually drop off. The horse chestnut tree is part of the life cycle of the moth ‘Cameraria ohridella’.

It was first recorded in the UK in Wimbledon, London, in 2002 but has rapidly become widespread in the UK. The good news is that trees are not killed by this moth. Despite the browning of leaves and early leaf fall, there is no evidence that damage by this caterpillar leads to a decline in tree health, die back of branches, or tree death. Affected trees will re-leaf and flower the following spring, so please do not chop down affected trees. 

The safest way to learn about fungi is to attend a fungi foray led by an expert. Autumn is a good time of year to see fungi, so look out for guided walks and events in your area during the autumn months. Organisations which host fungi forays include Norfolk Wildlife Trust, Sculthorpe Moore, and Pensthorpe Nature Reserve and Gardens. 

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society have a Norfolk Fungus Study Group. Visit their website for further information.  

For lots more information about fungi, visit the British Mycological Society.

There are approximately 15,000 species of fungi found in the UK. Of these, around 3,300 have been recorded in Norfolk by the British Mycological Society.

There are around 15,000 species of fungi in the UK, and it is impossible to know if one is poisonous or edible without confidently identifying the individual fungus, which is not always easy. While there are so many species you may come across, only a few are really good to eat and only a few are deadly poisonous – many of which look very similar to each other.  

Fungi are incredibly interesting organisms, and finding one is bound to bring excitement. Unfortunately, there are no easy rules or tricks to tell if a mushroom is poisonous, it comes down to learning the fine details of the individual species. Most fungus fatalities in Britain (about one each year) are caused by the death cap which has white gills, a ring (or collar) around the stem and, usually, a greenish cap. The yellow stainer is also a common cause of mild poisonings, due to its similarity to the field mushroom. If in doubt, leave it out! 

If you would like to find out more about fungi, Norfolk Wildlife Trust and The Norfolk Naturalist Society run a series of forays throughout the autumn months, or you can head to the Norfolk Fungus Study Group website.

The risk of fungi poisoning is small, but not zero. Most grassland fungi will not cause harm, but there are some that can cause stomach upsets and serious poisoning, such as the ivory funnel (and its very similar relatives). This has a creamy-white cap (sometimes with a hint of pink or grey) 2-4 centimetres across and often slightly irregular (not actually funnel-shaped, despite the name). The gills are a similar colour and quite closely spaced. Fungi play an important part of a healthy ecosystem and the appearance of mushrooms in your lawn often indicates healthy soil beneath. If you can, the best option is to leave them, as the fruiting body of most species is short lived. However, if you are worried, they can be carefully picked and placed in a compost bin or wild patch away from your lawn. 

Fairy rings are caused by the outward growth through the soil of fungal mycelium from the point where it originated from a spore. Several fungi species cause rings of darker (and often longer) grass where the fungal activity has released nutrients which fertilise the grass. In late summer or autumn, fungus fruiting bodies may emerge in this dark zone. Some other ring-forming species ‘fruit’ without affecting the growth of the grass. 

A well-fertilised lawn is less likely to show fairy rings – but also less likely to provide a habitat for interesting plants and fungi. It is said that watering the lawn with a dilute solution of Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate) will eliminate fairy rings, but the best answer is to enjoy them! Fairy rings often indicate healthy soil below your lawn. If you have young children, make up stories about the rings; if you have scientific inclinations, measure the growth rate of the ring, or try to identify the species. 

Honey fungus is a common fungus which form large clusters of mushrooms at the base of trees and stumps. The caps are often honey-coloured, sometimes darker, usually with small scales. The gills are pale brownish and there is usually a ring (or collar) around the stem. Another clue is the presence of tough black threads (like bootlaces) under the bark of affected wood. In fact, this fungus is one of the most variable of our common fungi. The other common clustering fungus on stumps is sulphur-tuft, smaller and yellower than honey fungus and it has dirty-greenish gills. It does not attack living trees. 

Honey fungus is a killer of trees and some herbaceous plants, but it can take several years after the appearance of the fungi before the tree dies. Removing them won’t help because it is the mycelium within the tree’s tissues which is causing the harm. Honey fungus continues to consume the wood after the death of the tree. 

Preventing the spread of the fungus is a major undertaking (involving digging, plastic barriers and a fungicide called Armillatox), but is rarely worth the effort. The good news is that it typically attacks the odd tree and rarely decimates a garden or wood.